Annals of the Academy of Romanian Scientists

Series Agriculture, Silviculture and Veterinary Medicine Sciences

ISSN 2344-2085

Volume 15, Number 1/2026

166

ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE PRODUCTIVITY

OF AGROSILVOPASTORAL SYSTEMS WITH

EUROPEAN BEECH (FAGUS SYLVATICA L.)

FROM THE GURGHIULU MOUNTAINS

Teodor MARUȘCA¹, Elena MIHĂILĂ^2,5, Adrian TUDORA^2,3,

Mihăiță BÎTCĂ^2,4, Cristina I. PORR¹

Abstract. Agrosilvopastoral systems (ASPs) represent one of the main approaches for

mitigating the negative effects of global warming on livestock production during the

grazing season. The study was carried out in the Gurghiu Mountains, the Eastern

Carpathians, within the localities of Ibănești and Eremitu in Mureș County, Romania. The

pasture, located at an elevation of 900–1,150 m a.s.l., covers an area of 700 hectares and

contains an average of 14 well-developed Fagus sylvatica trees per hectare, with a mean

crown cover canopy of 2,900 m²h^-1. The average green fodder (GF) production under the

tree canopy was estimated at 9.65 t ha^-1, with a pastoral value index (PV) of 57.3,

resulting in a milk production of 1,462 L ha^-1during a 135-day grazing season. In the

open pastures without trees, the GF production was estimated at 5.96 t ha^-1, with a PV of

38.2, and a potential milk production of 621 L ha^-1. The production of timber was 91.22

m³ha^-1and 41.61 m³h^-1of firewood. The annual production of beech mast was estimated

at 125 kg ha^-1. The total economic value of products derived from ASP amounted to

€1,013 ha^-1year^-1, which was nearly 3.3 times higher than the value of the milk produced

on treeless pastures without shade for animals.

Keywords: Agrosilvopastoral system with Fagus sylvatica; milk production; timber

production; economic value

DOI

10.56082/annalsarsciagr.2026.1.166

¹PhD, Eng., Senior Researcher, Research and Development Institute for Grasslands Brașov,

Romania, Full Member of The Academy of Romanian Scientists (e-mail: maruscat@yahoo.com).

²PhD, Eng., Researcher, National Institute for Research and Development in Forestry “Marin

Drăcea”, Bucharest, Romania (e-mail: elena.mihaila@icas.ro).

^2,3PhD student, Eng., National Institute for Research and Development in Forestry “Marin

Drăcea”, Bucharest, Romania, Faculty of Silviculture and Forest Engineering, Transilvania

University of Brașov, Romania (e-mail: adrian.tudora@icas.ro).

^2,4PhD student, Eng., National Institute for Research and Development in Forestry “Marin

Drăcea”, Bucharest, Romania, Forestry Faculty, Ștefan cel Mare University of Suceava, Romania

¹Eng., affiliation: Research and Development Institute for Grasslands Brașov, Romania.

Economic Evaluation of the Productivity of Agrosilvopastoral

Systems with European Beech (Fagus Silvatica L.) from the Gurghiului Mountains

167

1. Introduction

Agrosilvopastoral systems (APSs) represent one of the most effective means of

protecting livestock during the grazing season against the negative effects of

global climate warming [5,6,10,16,17].

In our country, former communal pastures were traditionally populated with

various tree species providing shade for grazing animals, which are currently

more or less neglected [5, 14].

For these reasons, several studies have been initiated and continued on the ASP

systems that have survived to the present day, focusing on their economic value

assessment.

The present paper is a continuation of the studies regarding the economic value of

an ASPs with beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) located in the mountainous area of the

Eastern Carpathians.

2. Materials and Methods

Studies on the economic value of the ASPs with beech were conducted in the

Gurghiu Mountains, on a pasture belonging to the localities of Ibănești and

eremite, situated at an altitude of 900-1,150 m a.s.l., covering approximately 700

ha and surrounded by forest.

In the first phase, the floristic composition of the grasslands under the beech

canopy and in open areas was studied, based on which green fodder (GF), pastoral

value index (PV), and livestock stocking rate per hectare were evaluated

[6,8,9,11].

On this occasion, soil and forage samples were collected for analyses (Table 1).

Table 2. General characteristics of the agrosilvopastoral system (ASPs) with beech at Ibănești-

Eremitu

Soil

pH

Forage

CP

Pasture condition

Open field

Dominant species

Humus

(%)

CF

OMD

45.0

Nardus stricta

Festuca rubra

Agrostis capillaris

4.7

4.8

12.12

12.18

11.1

11.9

37.6

Festuca rubra

Poa pratensis

Under tree canopy

37.1

47.3

Agrostis capillaris

+, -

Difference

%

+ 0.1

102

+ 0.06

101

-

+ 0.8

108

- 0.5

99

+ 2.3

105

168

Teodor Marusca, Elena Mihaila, Adrian Tudora, Mihaita Bitca, Cristina Porr

CP = crude protein (N x 6.25); CF = crude fiber; OMD = organic matter digestibility

The herbaceous cover in open pastures was dominated by Nardus stricta and

Festuca rubra, whereas under the beech canopy a more favorable floristic

composition was observed, characterized by the dominance of Festuca rubra and

Poa pratensis ensured a higher crude protein and improved forage digestibility on

the pasture [2, 7].

Particular importance is attributed to the conversion coefficients of green fodder

production into animal production, which are based on forage consumption

indices required to produce one liter of milk or one kilogram of live weight gain

in cattle [12,13].

The green fodder consumption index per 1 liter (L) of milk was calculated using

the following equation:

GF consumption (kg) for 1 L milk = 9.5 – 0.05 × PV

(1)

The cow milk production per hectare was calculated using the following equation:

Milk production (L ha^-1) = GF (kg ha^-1) / GF consumption (kg) for 1 L milk (2)

The green fodder consumption index per 1 kg live weight gain in young cattle was

calculated using the following equation:

GF consumption (kg) for 1 kg of gain = 100 – 0.5 × PV

(3)

Similarly, the green fodder consumption for 1 kg of live weight gain varies from

50 kg of GF for the maximum PV index of 100 to 100 kg of GF for the lowest PV

index.

The live weight gain (meat production) per hectare in young cattle was calculated

using the following equation:

Weight gain production (kg ha^-1) = GF (kg ha^-1) / GF consumption (kg) for 1 kg of

gain

(4)

According to EU average market prices, cow’s milk was priced at €0.5 L^-1,

whereas live cattle were priced at €3.2 L^-1live weight [MADR, 2026].

Subsequently, studies were conducted on the isolated beech on the pasture to

evaluate the economic value of timber and fruits (beech mast).

The forest vegetation on the Ibănești-Eremitu pasture was analyzed by

establishing four experimental plots of 1 ha each, which were representative in

terms of tree density and vegetation condition (Figure 1).

Economic Evaluation of the Productivity of Agrosilvopastoral

Systems with European Beech (Fagus Silvatica L.) from the Gurghiului Mountains

169

Within each experimental plot, all trees were inventoried by measuring and

estimating their main dendrometric characteristics, namely diameter at breast

height, total tree height, stem height, and four radii along the N, S, E and W

directions in order to determine crown projection area.

A total of 55 beech trees were identified, scattered throughout the pasture. Only

one experimental plot contained a higher number of trees (21), while the others

contained 10 to 12 trees each, corresponding to an average density of 14 trees ha^-1.

Shrub vegetation was present in only one of the four experimental plots and

consisted of three individuals of hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna Jack.).

Fig. 4. Eremitu pasture and the location of the experimental plots

2.1. Economic evaluation of the Agrosilvopastoral systems (APSs)

The presence of trees in pastures provided ecological, economic, and social

benefits; therefore, the services provided by these pastures with trees include both

quantifiable and non-quantifiable values.

170

Teodor Marusca, Elena Mihaila, Adrian Tudora, Mihaita Bitca, Cristina Porr

The microclimatic conditions created by trees within pastures constitute a

significant ecological benefit, although it is difficult to quantify.

In contrast, the wood and non-wood products derived from trees on pastures are

quantifiable, and their economic evaluation is important for promoting the

conservation and management of existing pastures, as well as the establishment of

new ones.

Beech mast, the fruit of beech trees, constitutes an important feed resource for

pigs, sheep, and, to a lesser extent, cattle. Moreover, during specific periods when

forage resources are scarce, tree leaves can also contribute to supplementing

animal nutrition.

Economic returns may also be derived from timber harvested through the

selective cuts of pastures trees, provided that these interventions do not adversely

affect the ecological stability and equilibrium of the systems.

To quantify the income that can be generated from timber harvested in pastures, it

is necessary to determine the volume of the trees.

Tree volume can be estimated using equations that take into account the diameter

at breast height and tree height. The most commonly used general equation for

estimating tree volume is:

V = BA × h × f = 0.7854 × DBH²× h × f

(5)

where:

-

V = tree volume (m³)

BA = basal area (m²)

DBH = diameter at breast height (cm)

h = total tree height (m)

f = form factor, accounting for trunk shape (typically ranging from 0.4 to 0.7

for forest trees).[3]

3. Results and Discussions

The main productivity indicators of the beech-based ASPs highlighted the

superiority of the herbaceous cover under the tree canopy compared with that in

open pasture areas (Table 2).

Economic Evaluation of the Productivity of Agrosilvopastoral

Systems with European Beech (Fagus Silvatica L.) from the Gurghiului Mountains

171

Under the beech canopy, GF yield reached 9.65 t ha^-1, which was 62% higher than

in the open pasture, while PV reached 57.3, representing a 50% increase

compared with the treeless pasture.

Under these conditions of GF yield and PV, the GF consumption for 1 L milk was

6.6. kg under the canopy and 9.6 kg in the open pasture, resulting in a milk

production of 1,462 L ha^-1under the trees, which was 2.4 times higher than that

recorded in the open pasture.

Table 3. Evaluation of the main productivity indicators of pastures within the ASPs with beech

during a 135-day grazing season

Difference

+, -

Open

pasture

5.96

0.68

38.2

9.6

Under tree

canopy

9.65

1.10

57.3

6.6

1,462

Parameter

Unit

%

Green fodder (GF) yield

Optimal stocking rate

Pastoral value index (PV)

GF consumption for 1 L milk

Cow milk production

t ha^-1

LU ha^-1

Index

+ 3.69

+ 0.42

+ 19.1

- 3.0

162

150

69

kg L^-1

L ha^-1

621

+ 841

235

Regarding the dendrometric parameters, diameter at breast height ranged from 45

to 193 cm, while tree height varied between 7.4 and 30.4 m. A higher variation

was recorded for the crown projection area, which ranged from 64 to 386 m²

(Table 3).

Excluding the shrubs occurring on the pasture, the ground cover provided by

forest vegetation, expressed by the canopy cover index, reached a value of 0.29 in

the analysed plots, corresponding to a canopy closure of 0.3. This value indicates

a favourable tree cover level for silvopastoral systems.

The crown ratio, expressed as the proportion of crown height to total tree height,

ranged from 73% to 94%, reflecting the significant development of the beech

trees growing on the pasture and highlighting their importance in terms of

accumulated foliar biomass. Given that the coefficient of variation (CV) for this

parameter was only 5%, it can be concluded that the most possessed well-

developed and dense crowns.

The value of the coefficient of variation for the mean crown projection area is

36%, indicating a relatively high variability in crown shape, this suggests that is

not uniform and symmetrical in all cases.

Regarding tree health status, approximately 42% of the trees showed signs of

decline or dieback, such as dry and/or broken tops and branches, wounds, basal

scars, lichens, and tree cavities.

172

Teodor Marusca, Elena Mihaila, Adrian Tudora, Mihaita Bitca, Cristina Porr

Seed production was abundant in two of the four inventoried plots, normal in one,

and poor in the fourth plot. Although the pasture is grazed, though not

continuously; therefore, it is necessary to identify methods to protect the natural

regeneration of beech.

Given their very large DBH (mean is 104 cm), it can be concluded that the trees

on the Eremitu pasture are of an advanced age.

Under conditions of low stand density, these trees have developed large crowns,

with crown rations ranging from 73% to 94% of total tree height (Table 3),

together with thick and relatively short stems compared to trees growing within

closed forest stands.

Table 4. Main dendrometric parameters of beech trees on the Eremitu pasture

Coefficient

N/

4ha

Maximu

m

of

Dendrometric parameters

Mean

Minimum

variation

(%)

Diameter at breast height

(DBH, cm)

55

14

104

20.8

18.2

87

45

7.4

5.4

73

193

30.4

28.6

94

24

18

21

5

Tree height (H, m)

Crown height (m)

Crown ratio (% of total height)

Mean canopy projection area

(m²)

223

64

386

36

Total canopy projection area

2,903

per hectare (m²ha^-1)

N – number of inventoried trees.

Given the isolated growth conditions of the trees on the Eremitu pasture and the

relatively small proportion of stem length relative to total tree height (ranging

from 6% to 27%), together with their expansive crowns and thick branches, the

form factor was estimated at relatively low values (0.35).

Consequently, volume estimates may be associated with a certain margin of error

in the absence of precise field data on the volume of scattered pasture trees.

It should also be noted that the volume calculated using this formula does not

include the volume of branches, but only the stem volume, measured from the

base to the tip of the main stem. To account for branch volume, an additional

Economic Evaluation of the Productivity of Agrosilvopastoral

Systems with European Beech (Fagus Silvatica L.) from the Gurghiului Mountains

173

correction coefficient is applied, which for beech is estimated at 0.50 % of the

stem volume.

The choice of a branch volume correction coefficient of 0.50 is directly supported

by biometric field data collected.

The structural analysis of the sampled trees revealed that the crown ratio ranged

from 73% to 94% of the total tree height. This parameter indicates a strong crown

development at the expense of cleat bole length, which in some cases represents

only 6% of the total height.

Considering that the biomass of the main branches in these trees compensates the

low proportions of stem volume, the use of the 0.50 factor ensures an accurate and

conservative estimation of the total volume, fully consistent with allometric

models developed for scattered trees in European agroforestry systems.

For the experimental plots established on the Eremitu pasture, stem volume was

calculated using the formula presented above, with a form factor value of 0.35.

It should be noted that this form factor value incorporates a crown reduction

coefficient, given that the canopy occupies slightly over 70% of the total height

for the trees on Eremitu pasture.

Thus, the total stem volume of beech trees across the four inventoried plots

amounted to 364.89 m³, corresponding to a mean volume of 91.22 m³ha^-1. This

volume refers exclusively to stem volume, measured from the base to the tip of

the main stem.

Structurally distinct from oak, beechwood is a hard, dense and versatile material,

widely used in the furniture industry (particularly for bent components and load-

bearing structures), interior design, for the manufacture of kitchen utensils and

toys, as well as a premium energy source in the form of firewood and smoking

wood.

Due to its poor quality as timber, the beechwood from the pasture is almost

entirely downgraded to the firewood category; its market value ranges between

€50 and €120 m³, depending on the point of sale (either directly at the logging site

or from specialized timber depots).

Grown in open space with light available from all directions, beech trees on the

pasture develops thick branches very close to the ground. The stem remains short,

knotty, and often crooked, making it unsuitable for high-quality sawn timber or

veneer production. Being exposed directly to winds from all directions, the wood

develops spiral grain, which causes it to crack and warp severely during the

drying process.

174

Teodor Marusca, Elena Mihaila, Adrian Tudora, Mihaita Bitca, Cristina Porr

Old pasture trees frequently exhibit knots, sweep, and large wounds caused by

branch breakage or animal damage, which facilitate fungal infection, ultimately

leading to the development of extensive red heartwood or central rot.

To the firewood volume calculated solely for the stem, the volume of large limbs

and secondary branches – also referred to as mixed firewood – is added, the total

tree volume (main stem and branches) is calculated as follows: V_total= V_stem

V_stem× 0.50.

+

The volume of branches amounted to 182.45 m³across the four experimental pots,

corresponding to 45.61 m³ha^-1. The market value of this of this category if

firewood may be estimated at €75 m³. The total price of beech firewood,

including stem wood, branches, and the total volume, is presented in Table 4.

Given the important ecological and landscape functions provided by trees, timber

harvesting is not considered a management objective. Nevertheless, the economic

evaluation of silvopastoral systems highlights the economic potential of these

pastures in addition to their ecological benefits.

Only dead trees or individuals exhibiting a high degree of crown dieback should

be considered for removal from the pasture.

Table 5. Volume and market value of beech wood from the Eremitu pasture

Total value

of V_stem

Average

price of V_stem

(€ m³)

Total value

of V_branches

(€)

Total value of

V_stem

V_branches

Average price

of V_branches

(€ m³)

Species

Beech

V_total

(€)

(m³ha^-1)

(€)

(m³ha^-1)

91.2

120.0

10,946.4

45.6

70.0

3,192.7

14,139.2

On a pasture, the true value of beech trees does not lie in their timber volume, but

rather in the ecosystem services provided: i) providing shelter for livestock from

heat stress during hot summer days, thereby helping to maintain milk production

and animal body weight; ii) preventing soil erosion on sloping pastures through

their root system, while the canopy reduces soil water evaporation beneath the

crown projection to maintain a more humid microclimate; and iii) functioning as

authentic “biodiversity islands” that provide nesting sites for birds of prey (which

control pasture rodent populations) and habitats for beneficial insects.

In addition to the benefits outlined above, beech trees produce fruits (beech mast),

which constitute a valuable source of nutrients, including proteins, lipids,

carbohydrates, minerals, and vitamins [1, 15].

Beech mast is an excellent feed resource for pigs. The meat and lard of animals

fed on beech mast acquire a distinctive texture and flavor, a phenomenon

Economic Evaluation of the Productivity of Agrosilvopastoral

Systems with European Beech (Fagus Silvatica L.) from the Gurghiului Mountains

175

comparable to that observed in Spain, where free-range pigs are finished on

acorns.

Although less well known in local gastronomy, beech nut oil regarded as a

delicacy in certain European regions, particularly in France, owing to its high

resistance to rancidity and its mildly sweet flavor, reminiscent of walnuts pr

almonds.

On pastures, where beech trees benefit from greater light availability and reduced

competition for space, fructification occurs more frequently. Seed production

typically begins at 40 to 50 years of age, with a periodicity of 5 to 6 years, though

partial masting may also occur between full mast years [3].

The occurrence and intensity of mast production are influenced by climatic

conditions (temperature and drought), soil characteristics, and tree stress factors,

such as water deficit, harvesting interventions, or disease. While specific

measurements of beech mast production were not conducted within the analyzed

pasture plots, but in beech stands trees may produce between 400 and 800 kg ha^-1,

depending on the fructification year [15].

The labor cost for harvesting one kilogram of beech mast varies from €8 to €16,

with a higher value corresponding to years of low fruit production.

These values were calculated based on the Unified Time and Production Norms

for Forestry Operations [4] under average masting conditions.

Labor costs are further increased by the commercial margin applied during

subsequent marketing of the product, resulting in a final market price ranging

from €24 to €36 per kilogram. However, because the beech mast is consumed on-

site as forage by both wild and domestic animals, its baseline economic value was

estimate at €3 per kilogram.

The final economic value of milk, timber, and beech mast production within the

ASPs is presented in Table 5.

Table 6. Comparative economic evaluation of the agrosilvopastoral system (ASPs) and treeless

pasture (TlP)

Pasture systems

%

Diferențe ASP-FA

Item

ASPs

865

433

TlP

621

311

+, -

%

Milk production (L ha^-1yr^-1)

Value x 0.5 € (L ha^-1yr^-1)

Timber volume (m³ha^-1at

120 years)

+ 244

+ 122

139

43

91.22

0.76

-

Annual timber yield (m³ha^-1

yr^-1)

Value × 120 € (m³ha^-1yr^-1)

91

45.61

9

-

Firewood

volume

from

176

Teodor Marusca, Elena Mihaila, Adrian Tudora, Mihaita Bitca, Cristina Porr

branches (m³ha^-1at 120

years)

Annual firewood yield (m³

ha^-1yr^-1)

0.38

27

-

Value × 70 € (m³ha^-1yr^-1)

Beech mast production (kg

ha^-1yr^-1)

3

125

375

173

Value × 3 € (kg ha^-1yr^-1)

Additional milk production

(20%) (L ha^-1yr^-1)

37

Value × 0.5 € (L ha^-1yr^-1)

Total annual value (€)

87

1,013

8

100

-

311

+702

326

For milk production within the ASP system, a weighted average was calculated

between the under-canopy yield of 1,462 L ha^-1over a total crown projection area

of 2,900 m²and the open-pasture yield of 621 L ha^-1obtained across the

remaining 7,100 m², resulting in a final average of 865 L ha^-1.

The stem timber volume intended for industrial processing from the 14 beech

trees was evaluated at 99.22 m³ha^-1over a 120-year cycle, corresponding to an

annual increment of 0.76 m³ha^-1yr^-1.

Firewood volume accounted for 45.61 m³ha^-1at 120 years, equivalent to an

annual yield of 0.38 m³ha^-1yr^-1.

Average beech mast production was estimated at 125 kg ha^-1yr^-1.

The beneficial effect of tree shade on cattle performance was estimated to increase

milk production by 20%, resulting in an additional 173 L ha^-1yr^-1.

Based on current market prices for livestock and forestry products, the total

economic value of the ASPs reached €1,013 ha^-1yr^-1, a value 3.3 times higher

than that of the pasture without trees.

The proportional distribution of the economic value within the ASP system

consisted of 51% from milk production, 37% from beech mast yield, 9% from

trunk timber and 3% from firewood.

Conclusions

(1). Pastures containing a mean of 14 beech trees per hectare, with a total crown

projection area of 2,900 m²provide effective protection for both pasture

vegetation and grazing animals and may therefore be considered highly

economically efficient agrosilvopastoral systems (ASPs).

(2). The green fodder yield and the pastoral value index beneath the beech canopy

are 50% to 62% higher compared to those of the treeless pasture.

Economic Evaluation of the Productivity of Agrosilvopastoral

Systems with European Beech (Fagus Silvatica L.) from the Gurghiului Mountains

177

(3). Tree volume by wood assortments amounted to 91.22 m³ha^-1of timber and

45.61 m³ha^-1of firewood over a 120-year period, representing an annual

equivalent of 0.76 m³yr^-1and 0.38 m³yr^-1, respectively, supplemented by an

annual beech mast production of 125 kg ha^-1yr^-1.

(4). The total economic value of the ASPs was €1,013 ha^-1yr^-1, with cow milk

production contributing 51%, beech mast yield 37%, timber 9% and firewood 3%

to the overall financial value.

(5) The beech-based ASPs is approximately 3.3 times more economically

valuable than the treeless pasture.

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